Argument for Measures to Control Illegal Immigration

Introduction Immigration is the movement by people from one country to another with the motive of permanent settlement in another country. Across boarder movements are majorly facilitated by unfavorable conditions in some countries as compared to others. This paper seeks to carry out an argument that strict measures should be adopted in order to counter illegal immigration. The paper will look into the negative impacts that are suffered by the host countries in order to form the ground on which illegal immigration must be stopped.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Argument for Measures to Control Illegal Immigration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Arguments for Control of Illegal Immigration Immigration has been a global factor on a variety of bases that range from family based immigration in which individuals move to join their relatives in other countries to humanitarian grounds which include cases of refugees. Most of the reported illegal immigration has majorly been based on social security which sums up to economic factors in different countries. This leads to higher flow of populations from developing countries to developed countries whose economies are perceived to be better. This direction of flow is associated with the hardships in countries of origin which drives the immigrants into seeking better lifestyles in economies that are recognized to offer better opportunities. One of the impacts of such immigration is the financial burden that is laid on the government in terms of making provisions for the immigrants. The basic responsibility of government to provide to its citizenry will be extended to the immigrants, which implies increased government spending. The economic strain is worsened if the immigrants are not productive to the economy. The United States of America has, for example, realized a large number of immigrants that calls for more than ten billion dollars in government expenditure with respect to social security on the immigrants. Though the immigrants at times contribute to the economy through their paid taxes, their contribution has not been sufficient to cover for their needs. The taxes that immigrants in the United States of America pay are for example reported to be way below their needs in the health care alone. An independent consideration of budget with respect to immigrants thus has a deficit that is then transmitted to the federal’s annual budget. The strain is further realized with respect to the emergency services that the immigrants are entitled to under government funding. This strain on the government resources that puts native citizens at risks of not getting such services due to scarcity thus calls for adequate measures to ensure that the number of immigrants is reduced (Meissner, Meyers, Papademetriou, Demetrios and Fix 1). The economic impacts as realized from immigration are similarly felt by individual legal citizens i n a number of ways. The fact that the immigrants are mostly driven by economic factors is a disadvantage to the natives in terms of job competition. Their level of desperation together with remuneration rates in their native countries that enable the immigrants, especially on their arrival, to accept relatively lower wage rates creates unfair competition to the natives in the job market.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This follows the fact that employers will seek a relatively cheaper labor with the aim of reducing operational costs. There is therefore a potential risk of job losses by legal citizens to the cheaply available labor provided by the illegal immigrants. Though the immigrants are normally characterized with lower pays upon their arrival, this change with time and they get equal treatment as the other citizens. The impacts that are felt due to the incorporation of the imm igrants are particularly serious due to the fact that cases of unemployment are also significant even in the developed countries. A considerable assimilation of immigrants into the labor market thus has the direct impact of increasing the unemployment crisis that the governments have not been able to handle. A considerable approach to at least maintain the unemployment rates would be an effective control of the infiltration of the job markets with immigrants. This can be achieved by discouraging any further influx of immigrants. This can either be achieved by taking more strict measures to ensure that immigrants to not cross boarders into the host countries. Actions against existing illegal immigrants can also be employed to act as an example for discouraging other people from illegal immigration (Sari and Kerr 18). Legislative provisions in some countries have also been identified to promote illegal immigration. A consideration of laws that have been enacted in the past by congress in the United States of America can for example give hopes of legalization of immigrants. The provisions have been realized to have a lot of leniency that immigrants seemingly take advantage of. Past legislations that offered amnesty to illegal immigrants in the year 1994 and further extension of such amnesty can for example be interpreted to send a wrong message that illegal immigrants in the United States of America can be protected rather that be prosecuted for getting into the country illegally. There have also been provisions that selectively allow individuals, bases on specified factors such as geographical and humanitarian, to freely move into the United States and be accorded permanent residence. This has also offered a loop hole into immigration as the provisions can be used by any individual to gain entry into the United States. The fact that the American constitution has been interpreted by the supreme court for the government’s responsibility to protect and be re sponsible for any individual who is within the nation’s boarders thus adds to the need that an avenue needs to instituted to ensure that the level of immigration is curtailed. This provision is for instance realized in the fact that once immigrants are in the United States of America, they are subject to government services that include federal funding at higher education levels.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Argument for Measures to Control Illegal Immigration specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Services that are provided in academic institutions have also been greatly liberalized in many states to allow for equal treatment for both legal citizens and illegal immigrants. The economic attachment that are again realized with respect to these provisions thus forces the need to stop the immigration before the immigrants gain access into the nation. According to Nilsson, immigration is characterized by a wide variety of setbacks that calls for its regulation. Immigration is characterized by population increase in the regions in which the immigrants settle. This has the direct impact of straining resources that are in most cases scarce. Natural factors such as land and other economic resources that can not be reproduced are thus subjected to faster depletion due to increased population. Increased demand for commodities which leads to scarcity also forces prices up thus contributing to higher costs of living. Increased population which leads to increased utilization of land for housing also restrains other economic activities for which the land could have been used. Agricultural activities as well as industrial investments may thus be compromised in order to offer land for accommodation. Another impact of immigration especially in cases where governments are charged with the responsibility over the immigrants is the inefficiency in service provisions due to scarcity of resources relative t o demand. High population can significantly overstretch provisions such as transportation, education, health care and other essentials such as water and power. This leads to poor standards of living that can be transmitted to legal citizens who are living in the same region. Allowing illegal immigrants to settle in a country to the disadvantage of the country’s citizen thus strains the relationship between governments and their citizens over the responsibilities of the governments to safeguard the well being of its citizens. Scarcity of resources that has been evidenced by unemployment rates and budget deficits thus leaves governments with the only option controlling immigration (Nilsson 1). Arguments for immigration There are however some arguments that have associated immigration with economic success in nations such as the United States of America. It is also claimed that immigration can be a key to achieving key interests in America in the twenty first century. Such opini ons suggest that immigration helps host countries in coping with economic challenges as well as enriching the host countries in terms of diversity (Meissner, Meyers, Papademetriou and Fix 13). Conclusion Immigration is characterized with a number of impacts on the citizens and even governments of host counties. Impacts such as increased unemployment rates, reduced wages and strained social facilities that are reflected in the countries’ economies outweighs the claimed benefits of immigration especially due to the current global economic crisis. Strict measures should thus be taken to control illegal immigration.Advertising Looking for essay on government? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Works Cited Meissner, Doris., Meyers, Deborah., Papademetriou, Demetrios and Fix, Michael. Immigration and America’s future. Migration Policy Institute, 2006. Web. Nilsson, Tomas. Negative economic impacts of immigration and population growth. Tasmanian Branch of Sustainable Population Australia, 2005. Web. Sari, Kerr and Kerr, William. Economic Impacts of Immigration: A Survey. Harvard Business School, 2011. Web. This essay on Argument for Measures to Control Illegal Immigration was written and submitted by user Cloud 9 to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Architeuthis essays

Architeuthis essays The documentary of Architeuthis was about trying to learn more about these giant squid and also the journey to find one in its natural habitat. No person has ever documented the living existence of the creature. A few people have found washed up corpses of Architeuthis on shorelines. Never has one been found completely intact. The scientists tried to find out breeding habits, the lifespan of the squid, where they live, and so on. They are the archrival of the sperm whale. Many sperm whales have been found with giant gashes in their sides, more then likely from hunting Architeuthis. The program was very interesting, considering I was thinking about becoming a marine biologist. I learned what Architeuthis eats, also that it hunts sperm whale as well as the other way around. No one knows where these squid live and have never encountered a living specimen. So far the largest squid to wash up on shore has been measured sixty feet long, including tentacles. They also may produce millions of young, but the number is not set in stone, only hypothesized according to the size of the creature. Also the eyes of the squid are the largest found in the animal kingdom. The size of the eye is about the same as a human head. The reason for them having huge eyes is because they live in the ocean deep, where little sunlight makes it. Therefore large eyes would held drastically to help find food. The mouth of the squid contains a giant beak. The beak serves as teeth for the squid. The squid must eat constantly to keep up with its rapid growth. The arms of the squid ar e comparably as long as an anaconda. Located on the arms are hundreds of suckers along with teeth around the suckers. Finally the longest part of Architeuthis, are its tentacles. They serve as arms to pull in prey to the arms, which squeeze the prey so; the squid can tear up its prey with the beak. This article gave me a new respect for ocean life. Architeuthis has to...

Interpretations of David Lynch's film Blue Velvet (1986) often suggest Essay

Interpretations of David Lynch's film Blue Velvet (1986) often suggest that the film either cultivates the sincere and innocent - Essay Example They do not reveal anything about the investigation but it is here that he meets Sandy (Laura Dern), the detective’s daughter, who unveils what her father has deciphered about the case- that a woman named Dorothy Vallens (Isabella Rossellini) is a suspect of the case. Jeffrey then poses as a help man and as Dorothy is engaged in conversation with a man in the yellow suit (to whom Jeffrey later refers to as Yellow Man), Jeffrey takes the key to Dorothy’s apartment. Sandy and Jeffrey then attend Dorothy’s nightclub act where she sings ‘Blue Velvet’, and from thereon Jeffrey leaves early to sneak into Dorothy’s apartment to find clues. When Dorothy arrives he hides in her closet, but she sensing him finds him with a knife in her hand. Mistaking Jeffrey’s curiosity for sexual interest she forces him to undress as she threatens him with the knife. At this point Dorothy engages in orally stimulating Jeffrey. The encounter is interrupted by a knock on the door whereby Dorothy pushes Jeffrey back in the closet from where he witnesses that the visitor-Frank Booth (Dennis Hopper)- attempts to molest, abuse and rape Dorothy. Hiding in the closet Jeffrey finds that Frank Booth is a drug dealer who has kidnapped Dorothy’s husband and son so that he may use Dorothy to satisfy his sexual appetite. When Frank has left Dorothy turns to Jeffrey and attempts to make him mistreat her but he refuses and leaves even upon her insistence for him to stay. Jeffrey later relays his experience to Sandy and subsequently they go to Dorothy’s club where she performs Blue Velvet yet again. At the club Jeffrey observes Frank Booth who is fondling a piece of blue velvet which he had torn from Dorothy’s clothes the night Jeffrey has witnessed his assault and rape of Dorothy. It is then that Jeffrey decides to follow Frank. The next scenes show Jeffrey prying on Frank and his connection with the Yellow Man and another man which Jeffrey identifies as the Well Dressed Man. Jeffrey goes onto inform Sandy about his new findings and it is then that the sexual tension between the two breaks and they engage in a soft kiss. But Sandy is reluctant to go any further with Jeffrey because she has a boyfriend and Jeffrey taking this as rejection turns to Dorothy and the two have sexual intercourse. During this second intimate encounter with Dorothy, Dorothy is able to extract a frustrated reaction from Jeffrey whereby he turns and hits her. Instantly, we see that Jeffrey regrets this violent act but Dorothy enjoys it. Afterwards, Frank Booth finds Dorothy and Jeffrey coerces them to go to his partner Ben’s apartment. The scene at Ben’s residence is sadistic, here Ben sings ‘In Dreams’ and in the wake of this music Frank punches Jeffrey to unconsciousness when Jeffrey attempts to hit Frank when the later molests Dorothy. In the morning Frank wakes up in the yard where he had been beaten uncons cious and goes to Sandy’s father (the detective) to relay the entire course of events. That day Sandy accompanies Jeffrey to a dance and upon their return to Jeffrey’s residence they find a stricken, naked and traumatized Dorothy on Jeffrey’s lawn. Sandy is gone to fetch the police and her father and take them to Dorothy’

Mental health and mental disorder module(psychososial studies Degree) Essay - 1

Mental health and mental disorder module(psychososial studies Degree) - Essay Example The existence of mental disease and the legality of the psychiatric specialization are not universally acknowledged. Depression is the most widespread disease of XX century. During all the past and in present century depression was considered as a normal condition of artistic, creative people. We heard more than once:  «I am in depression, live me along ". Nowadays, depression is a dangerous disease, which causes unfeigned suffering. The diagnosis of depression is not very easy task. The picture of the basic symptoms "is "decorated" with a variety of additional: difficulty to concentrate on any business, the attention "is floating". A known phenomenon "the lights are on but nobodys home" is from this area - it is necessary to re-read the same for thirty times to catch sense at last (is sclerosis a disease?). It is difficult to select word while communicating with other people, the string of conversation is constantly lost; there is a strange indecision, constant doubts even at performance of the most usual tasks. The self-confidence vanishes, it seems, that all the tasks are done wrong; the global feeling of fault may arise before relatives and friends, the person feels like a burden in the family, unnecessary, superfluous at work. His internal monologue sound approximately so: "I am a loser. I have achieved nothing and now full professional bankruptcy is waiting for me†. Both the past and the future are i magined gloomy and pessimistic. The person collects the most unattractive facts of the biography, completely ignoring those moments when he was happy, achieved success. From time to time there is an idea that, perhaps, the simplest way is to leave the life; there is diversified disorder of dream: it is difficult to fall asleep in the evening, general duration is reduced because of often awakenings, and as a result the wakes up at 4-5 oclock in the morning. There is also

Identifying Audiences Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Identifying Audiences - Assignment Example Same as with most valuable tools, identification of audience could be used in excess. Adaptation of the speech to the audience is different from telling them what they exactly need to hear. It does not mean grandstanding or even kowtowing to the audience. Adaptation does guide the styles as well as choices of content made by a speaker for a representation. Adaptation of the audience does involve trying to walk a fine line in between over and under adapting. Audiences in a speech situation bring expectations about the speaker, topic as well as occasion. Violation of the expectations of the audience could negatively impact the speech’s effectiveness. For instance where a Politian is giving a speech in the memorial of a mayor who is diseased, then the expectations of the audience are that he praises the mayor. If the speaker talks about some legislations the there is a probability if losing credibility since the audient may be offended. In a business talk the speaker is not expected to talk about how the business will fail in less than a year unless that was the main issue expected by the audience. However, there may also be situations where violation of the expectations of the audience can be a strategy quite effective (UMC Web Team, 2007). In any occasion, the knowledge of topic on any occasion may widely vary; hence, it will be useful for a communicator to find out what the audience does know on that topic. A speaker should not at any one given time overestimate the knowledge of the audience on the same topic. If a speaker does lounge a discussion that is quite technical and the audience is not familiar with, they might likely loose the interest and fail to follow the speaker. Also underestimating the knowledge of the audience drastically could lead to a speech, which sounds condescending. It is always advisable to try to dig up what is the knowledge of the audience on

Prochaska and Di Clemente Stages of Change

Prochaska and Di Clemente Stages of Change The transtheoretical model of change is one of several models of health promotion used by health care professionals in an effort to recognise and foresee health behaviours. The model is supported by various authors as a successful tool and framework within health education. (Warner 2003) This assignment will introduce the model and briefly discuss its input to health promotion together with further developments since its beginning. A concise account of its use in present health education will be given and referred to where applicable. The assignment will go on to discuss the relevance of the transtheoretical model of change within nursing practice and provide an understanding of the model by explaining the main theories. In addition the assignment will discuss and provide further information on what areas impact on how the model is used and why. Further discussion will take account of the strength of the approach used by this model and include theories on why it is used giving consideration to the patient as well as the health care professional. It is recommended that successful health education models can be used to asses goals in order to engage in pre-emptive behaviour and consequently it is crucial that the model is explained in order to take full advantage of its use. (Downie et al. 1997, Ogden 2004) The approach will be investigated in order that the reader can form an opinion on its use and why it is needed within health education. It is acknowledged that nursing and health care practice should be established on the most current and reliable research available and nurses must practice in partnership with equally the patient and other health authorities (NMC 2008). The writer hopes to establish the reader with the necessary information that satisfies these requirements and gives further discussion on how the transtheoretical model of change can be applied to clinical practice. This will include criticisms and challenges against the model and look at how the model is included within broader professional health care such as current health promotion campaigns. Finally a conclusion will be provided which will summarise the findings of this assignment and emphasise any significant features that add to the validity of the model and its use within health care. The transtheoretical model of change was developed by Prochaska and Di Clemente (1983) and grew from systematic integration of more than 300 theories of psychotherapy, along with analysis of the leading theories of behaviour change (Prochaska and Velicer, 1997). Consequently following the inception of public- health programmes this model has been implemented and is used within current health promotion. (Wood 2008) Health promotion is defined by the World Health Organisation (WHO 1986) as the process of enabling people to increase control over, and to improve, their health. Health education is considered an approach of health promotion which also includes many theories, beliefs and concepts in regards to effective intervention. (Tones 2001) The transtheoretical model of change focuses on the decision-making abilities of the individual rather than the social and biological influences on behaviour as other approaches tried (Velicer, Prochaska, Fava, Norman, and Redding, 1998; Scholl, 2002). This model was developed to provide a framework for understanding how individuals change their behaviours and for considering how ready they are to change their substance use or other lifestyle behaviour. The stages and processes by which people change seem to be the same with or without treatment these include the individuals perceptions of susceptibility to illness, severity of illness, barriers to changing behaviour, benefits to changing behaviour and finally action and maintenance. Although the model has been adapted and modified to include further components for the purpose of this assignment it is necessary to explain the theory behind the original before discussing modifications. (Ogden 2004, Bennett and Murphy 1997, Naidoo and Wills 2000) In addition it is suggested that by using these concepts in the transtheoretical model of change it will predict the likelihood that behaviour will or will not change depending on the individuals perception. The idea of anticipating behaviour and therefore adjusting intervention is supported by various researchers who suggest that using cognitive models can assist in how individuals perceive health by conscious thought as to the behaviours and the cost of those behaviours. (Yarbrough and Braden 2001, Roden 2004a, Wood 2008) This supports healthcare professionals to allow the patient to change behaviours based on their own awareness as opposed to medical tactics to health promotion that have been used previously. Ewles and Simnett (2003) recommend that using a client centred approach empowers the patient to change behaviour and independently manage behaviour and as a result the health care professional becomes a facilitator instead of an instructor. Using a client centred approach does not discount the benefits of the medical approach as it may require various tactics depending at what stage of the model the individual is identified as being at. However by using an effective health promotion model, it encourages the patient to become an active participant and more responsible for their health related decisions. Ogden (2004) describes the concept of an individuals perception of control on their health as the Health locus of control which will be discussed later within this assignment. Based on the understanding of individual perceptions influencing behaviour it reinforces the use of the components previously discussed and by looking at these separately it is hoped that health care professionals will be able to detect the risks of behaviour and the probability of change. (Naidoo and Wills 2000, Ogden 2004) The previous mentioned components can be identified in the Transtheoretical model of change; these include pre-contemplation, contemplation, action, and maintenance. However the aspect that makes the transtheoretical model of change unique is the theory that change occurs over time, an aspect generally ignored by other models of change (Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998; Scholl, 2002). This temporal dimension of the theory suggests that an individual may progress through five stages of change when trying to adjust their behaviours (Prochaska and Di Clemente, 1983; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997). In the transtheoretical model of change, behaviour change is treated as dynamic, rather than an all or nothing phenomenon. This distinction is considered one of the theorys strengths (Marshall and Biddle, 2001). The first stage of change within the transtheoretical model of change is the precontemplation stage, where individuals have no intention of taking action within the next six months (Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Scholl, 2002). Individuals at this stage may or may not be aware of the consequences of their behaviour (Prochaska et al., 1992;Scholl, 2002) or may have tried to modify/change their behaviour and failed several times and as a consequence are dejected and unwilling to have another attempt (Prochaska and Velicer, 1997). Prochaska et al (1992) propose that the main characteristic of someone in the precontemplation stage is that they struggle to accept that they have problem behaviour and as such they cannot move on from this particular stage of the model. In order for the individual to move on they must experience cognitive dissonance which is acknowledging that there are negative aspects to continuing with this behaviour (i.e. smoking and the possibility of contracting lung cancer as a result) (Scholl, 2002). Following on from precontemplation, contemplation is the individual trying to make significant changes within another six month period, this includes evaluating any benefits or disadvantages to the individual changing their behaviour (i.e. cost of smoking, as opposed to loss of social activity) as a consequence many people stay within this stage for longer (Patten et al., 2000; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska Velicer, 1997; Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998). Therefore the behaviour may seem more attractive than the change needed to be made (Scholl, 2002). This is known as chronic contemplation or behavioural procrastination (Prochaska and Velicer, 1997). Whilst within this phase the individual will still continue with the risky behaviour despite being aware of the consequences that this behaviour could cause (Patten et al., 2000). However it is widely accepted that someone within the contemplation stage is genuinely trying to resolve their problem behaviour (Prochaska et al., 1992) and as a result will only move on to the next stage when the positive aspects of change outweigh the negative aspects of remaining the same (Scholl, 2002). Preparation proceeds contemplation and in this area of change the time scale for the individual to modify their behaviour reduces to within the next month (Patten et al., 2000; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998). An individual in this stage has tried to change or adjust their behaviour within the last year and has been unsuccessful however this has not discouraged them from continuing to i.e. binge drinking, smoking, or misuse of drugs. As a result of this the individual is at a loss as to how to proceed with any changes and if they are ultimately able to make these changes given that they have up until now failed (Scholl 2002). In this instance a plan of action can be produced by the healthcare professional in order to identify how to reduce or eliminate the problem behaviour and therefore give the person the opportunity to choose between alternative solutions i.e. smoking 10 cigarettes as opposed to 40 cigarettes a day or to stop smoking with the help of nicotine patches (Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998). Consequently when an individual feels confident and in control of the situation and has identified a suitable plan of action they will naturally move on to the next stage of the model (Scholl, 2002). The action stage follows on from preparation and as a result efforts have been made to adjust the individuals, behaviours, experiences, or environments over the previous six months in order to conquer their predicament. This stage requires a considerable amount of time and energy and is the stage where the individual receives the most amount of attention from others because of their obvious hard work (Patten et al., 2000; Prochaska et al., 1992). However it should be noted that research has stated not to mistake trying to change with actual change, this only occurs when the criteria is reached for the individual and will reduce the risks associated with their particular problem behaviour (Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998). Prochaska, DiClemente, and Norcross (1992) suggest that the main ways of identifying a person within the action stage is by the individuals obvious lifestyle changes i.e. healthy eating and documented weight loss to a more acceptable criterion level. Progress into the final stage happens when the individual perceives positive changes to their lifestyle, health and as a result feels better whilst also receiving encouraging feedback from family, friends and health professionals (Scholl, 2002). Lastly the transtheoretical models maintenance stage is where people work to prevent a relapse and only after six months of being free of the problem behaviour can it be recognised as the criteria of an individual being within the maintenance phase. Research also recognises that maintenance is a continuation of change not an absence of it (Patten et al., 2000; Prochaska et al., 1992; Prochaska and Velicer, 1997; Velicer et al., 1998). Consequently individual perception is referred to the threat of illness and modifying factors can be referred to as behavioural response. In addition the likelihood of action is influenced by environmental cues. As a result the behaviour change occurs because of a threat to illness and therefore the behaviour changes or is adapted. Mc Clanahan et al. (2007), Warner (2003) and Clark (2000) all describe the threat as an individuals susceptibility to illness or disease. If an individual believes they are open to the illness or disease they may identify this as a danger to their health. This is only applicable if there is a significant risk factor such as smoking, diet, alcohol or drugs misuse. If an individual does not take into consideration their own vulnerability then it is unlikely that the transtheoretical model of change will be successful in predicting associated behaviour. Ogden (2004) suggests that perceived susceptibility can not be used as an effective predictor of behaviour change. Furthermore consideration must be applied to adolescents who are more likely to expose themselves to risks but be less aware of the consequences to their associated health. Naidoo and Wills (2000) suggest that health promotion can be challenging when dealing with young people in regards to risk behaviour as risk taking is essentially a part of adolescence. On the other hand it is usually accepted that if an individual perceives themselves to be vulnerable to a disease (i.e. lung disease from smoking) they will also consider the severity of that disease. (Daddario 2007, Simsekoglu and Lajunen 2007) The perception of severity or seriousness of a disease is subjective depending on the individuals understanding of the potential threat. Browes (2006) refers to the variance of perceived severity in relation to sexual health. The severity can vary from the belief that most diseases can be treated to the belief that sex can result in contracting potentially fatal diseases such as HIV. Therefore it may be necessary for the health care professional to encourage learning in relation to the severity of conditions in relation to the susceptibility. Finfgeld et al (2003) outline that to facilitate learning effectively it may be necessary for the health care professional to apply a more direct attitude which would involve the nurse addressing the increase of behaviour (susceptibility) as well as identifying potential risks (severity). However with this intervention the approach becomes nurse led as opposed to patient led which may compromise empowerment and likelihood that risk behaviour will return when the intervention is reduced. As a result the delivery of the necessary information to the patient may result in feeling of fear or guilt. Although it is suggested that fear and guilt can be effective in changing behaviours , it is criticised as it does not change behaviour long term and can contribute to feelings of denial and therefore affect the relationship between both patient and healthcare professional. (Naidoo and Wills 2000) Based on perceived susceptibility and severity the transtheoretical model of change believes that behaviour change will take place if the benefits outweigh the barriers to changing behaviours. However it is expected that potential benefits may be small compared to the barriers that prevent changes to behaviour. (Daddario 2007) Then again as previously discussed the transtheoretical model of change has had several modifications made to it in order to maximise its use within healthcare in order to apply it to other more complex health conditions. The psychologists who developed the stages of change theory in 1982 did so in order to compare smokers in therapy and self-changers along a behaviour change continuum. The idea behind this was to allow health care professionals to adapt a plan of action for each individual and as a result their therapy would be tailored to their particular needs. This process was then added to by a fifth component (preparation for action) as well as ten processes that help predict and motivate individual movement across the stages of the continuum. In addition, the stages are no longer considered to be linear; but are components of a cyclical process that varies for each individual (Diclemente and Norcross 1992). Used correctly and by incorporating the various modifications to the model, it is recognised that the transtheoretical model of change can assist health care professionals in health education. However as a psychological theory, the stages of change focuses on the individual without assessing the role those structural and environmental issues may have on an individuals ability to enact behaviour change. In addition, since the stages of change presents a descriptive rather than a causative explanation of behaviour, the relationship between stages is not always clear. Consequently each stage of change may not be appropriate for characterising every population. An example of this would be the study of sex workers in Bolivia which highlighted that very few of the participants were actually in the precontemplative, contemplative stages with regards to using condoms with their clients (Posner, 1995). However mass media campaigns can motivate individuals to change behaviours by highlighting the benefits of safer sex by the use of condoms. The use of positive messages as opposed to negative messages within mass media campaigns increases the likelihood of retaining the relevant information for longer. (Bennett and Murphy 1997) Naidoo and Wills (2000) also suggest individuals may have personal experiences of illness and disease within their family or friend network therefore this will influence how the benefits are perceived.These modifying factors will influence the likelihood of action and therefore determine if behaviour will change. As a result research conducted by Charron-Prochonwnik et al. (2001) found that changes to individual sexual behaviour correlated to the consideration of modifying factors such as social support, culture and positive attitudes resulting in safer behaviour. Additionally there are other features of the Transtheoretical Model of Change that are not easily applied to non-addiction type clinical problems. Howarth (1999) noted that the application of Transtheoretical Model of Change has promise in the field of eating behaviours but the translation is made difficult because the goal of smoking intervention is cessation whereas eating interventions is reducing intake of some foods and increasing the intake of others. Also in smoking interventions the main aim is to stop and is clearly understood by everyone. However in eating interventions the main aims are not so easily understood. Whereas in smoking research the outcome variables are reasonably simple compared to eating research where outcomes are more complex and the results variable. Ultimately smoking interventions target one behaviour whereas eating interventions focus on multiple behaviours. Furthermore there is the degree of difficulty in discontinuing smoking in the initial stages but as time progresses things get easier for the individual whereas eating more healthily can be easy at first but hard to maintain. Moreover when smoking discontinues it produces immediate physiological changes but eating interventions in the early stages only produce distant and subtle changes. As a result behaviour change will not only be on the basis of potential benefits but may also be subject to internal and external cues. As previously mentioned campaigns can promote changes to behaviour and this would be considered an external cue, the individual is motivated by the message that is projected. (Naidoo and Wills 2000) However internal cues may also influence behaviour, this may be a change in physical health or psychological wellbeing which encourages the individual to ask for help from health care professionals. Daddario (2007) suggest that internal cues are most likely to change behaviour in individuals that are over weight. Clarke et al, (2000) further suggest that with the incorporation of self-efficacy, health models can be more effective in predicting behaviours; this concept was developed by Bandura (1977) and can be described as an individuals confidence in their ability to complete a task. Finfgeld et al. (2003) also acknowledge that nurses can promote self-efficacy alongside models of health by reinforcing the importance of the contribution of individual capability in changing behaviours and can be used within educational and client centred approach to health education. In addition to self-efficacy Hughes (2004) considers the concept locus of control in order to maximise the use of various models of health. Locus of control refers to how the individual perceives control over their life and physical health. An individuals beliefs may be based on the idea that their health is subject to internal actions such as diet, lifestyle and as a result able to be changed. However in contrast others may believe that health is subject to external factors such as bad luck or fate. Just as important is the belief that religion and culture can contribute to the belief that health is predetermined and therefore cannot be influenced by behaviour changes. (Niven 1994, Naidoo and Wills 2000) Consequently Syx (2008) suggests effective questioning technique to establish where an individual places the locus of control, which should then determine how likely they are to engage in health education behaviours. In conclusion despite conflicting evidence for the transtheoretical model of change Macnee McCabe (2004) do not have conceptual concerns regarding this, but question the applicability of the model to specific populations. Sutton (2001) also suggests that there are some serious problems with the existing methods used to measure the stages of change. For example, stage criteria are not consistent across studies that use the approach. Some studies do not include questions about past attempts to change, and various time frames are used as reference points which alter distribution of people across stages (Lerner, 1990; Nigg et al., 1999; Stevens Estrada, 1996; Weinstein et al., 1998). Finally, Littell and Girvan (2002) suggest that a continuous model of readiness for change may be more integrated with related concepts from other theories. It is also documented that healthcare professionals be able to distinguish readiness for change from readiness to participate in particular treatments, and that change may come about quickly as a result of life events, or external pressures. Accordingly at this time there is an increase in the number of studies criticising the model over conceptual, methodological analytic concerns. On the other hand there is an equal amount of evidence supporting the model, verifying the constructs, and showing support for application to modifying health behaviour. Therefore the benefit of understanding this model and maximising it to its full potential can support nurses and other health care professionals to practice in accordance to guidelines set out by both clinical and academic bodies. The NMC (2008) outline the responsibilities of nursing professionals to work in a professional manner and ongoing research provides evidence in how the model can be used with modifications to suit different needs. (Roden 2004a, 2004b) REFERENCE LIST Bandura, A. (1977) Self-efficacy; toward a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychology Review, Vol. 84, no.2, pp. 191-215 Bennett, P., Murphy, S. (1997) Psychology and health promotion, Open University Press: Buckingham. Browes, S. (2006) Health psychology and sexual health assessment. Nursing Standard, Vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 35-39 Charron-Prochownik, D., Sereika, S., M., Becker, D., Jacober, S., Mansfield, J., White, N., Hughes, S., Dean-McElhinny T., Trail, L. (2001) Reproductive health beliefs and behaviours in teens with diabetes: application of the expanded health belief model. Paediatric Diabetes, Vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 30-39 Clark, A. V., Hildegarde, L., Williams, A., Macpherson M. 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Nursing Standard, Vol. 19, no. 10, pp. 47-52 Lerner, C. (1990) The transtheoretical model of change: Self-change in adolescent delinquent behaviours. Psychology. Kingston, RI, University of Rhode Island. Littell, J.H., Girvan, H. (2002) Behaviour modification. Available from. http://www.bmo.sagepub.com Macnee, C., McCabe, S. (2004) The Transtheoretical model of behaviour change and smokers in southern Appalachia. Nursing Research, Vol. 53, no.4. pp. 243-250 Marshall, S., Biddle, S. (2001) The Transtheoretical model of behaviour change: A meta-analysis of applications to physical activity and exercise. Annals of Behavioural Medicine, Vol. 23, no.4, pp. 229-246 McClannahan, C., Shelvin, M., Adamson, G., Bennett, C., ONeill, B. (2007) Testicular self-examination. A test of the health belief model and the theory of planned behaviour. Health Education Research, Vol.22, no. 2, pp. 272-284 Naidoo, J., Wills, J. (2000) Health promotion foundations for practice, 2nd ed., Bailliere Tindall: Edinburgh. Nigg, C.R., Burbank, P.M., Paddula, C., Dafresne, R. (1999) The Gerontologist. Available from. http://www.oxfordjournals.org Niven, N. (1994) Health psychology: an introduction for nurses and other health care professionals, 2nd ed., Churchill Livingstone: Edinburgh. Nursing and Midwifery Council. (2008) Standards of conduct, performance and ethics for nurses and midwives, Nursing and Midwifery Council: London. Ogden, J. (2004) Health Psychology A Textbook, 3rd ed., Open University Press: Maidenhead. Patten, S., Vollman, A., Thurston, W. (2000) The utility of the transtheoretical model of behaviour change for HIV risk reduction in injection drug users. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS care, Vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 57-66 Prochaska, J., DiClemente, C. (1983) Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. 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A review of applications of the transtheoretical model to substance abuse. Addictions, Vol. 96, pp. 175-186 Syx, R., L. (2008) The practice of patient education. The theoretical perspective. Orthopaedic Nursing, Vol. 27, no. 1, pp.50-54 Tones, K. (2001) Health promotion: The empowerment imperative. In Scriven, A., Orme, J. (ed) Health Promotion professional perspectives, 2nd ed., Palgrave: New York. pp. 3-16 Velicer, W., Prochaska, Fava, j., Norman, G., Redding, C. (1998) Smoking cessation and stress management: Applications of the Transtheoretical Model of behaviour change. Homeostasis, Vol. 38, pp. 216-233 Warner, P. (2003) Factors influencing intentions to seek a cognitive status examination: a study based on the health belief model International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, Vol. 18, no. 9, pp. 787-794 Weinstein, N.D., Rothman, A.J., Sutton, S.R. (1998) Stage theories of health behaviour: Conceptual and methodological issues. Health Psychology, Vol. 17, pp. 229-290 Wood, E.M. 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The Social Institution Of Marriage In Jane Austen’s Society Essay examp

The Social Institution Of Marriage In Jane Austen’s Society In the following essay I am going to closely examine the proposals of marriage Elizabeth by her cousin Mr Collins, and aristocrat Mr Darcy. I am also going to compare and contrast the events of each proposal. In Jane Austen’s lifetime a women’s status in society came firstly from her parents and secondly when she married. Jane Austen shows the marked differences in class frequently, as this was a major feature of everyday life in the 19th century. Men were seen as being far superior to women as they were able to work and thus earn a small, and in rare cases a large fortune. Pride and Prejudice in some ways mirrors Jane Austen’s own life, as her heart was broken at a tender age. Jane Austen gave her undying love to her hero Tom Lefroy, however the match proved incompatible as neither Jane or Tom had a sufficient income to allow them to live as man and wife. At only twenty Jane Austen’s real love had come and gone and she never went on to love anyone else. Pride and Prejudice portrays the struggle for women to find compatible men, that not only satisfied their own need for love and adoration, but also suitors that meet their families’ best interests. In chapter nineteen it becomes clear to the reader that Mr Collins is interested in Mrs Bennet’s daughters. He firstly questions the availability of Jane but is told that she is soon to be engaged to Mr Bingley. After this set back Mr Collins inquires about Elizabeth (the second eldest daughter of Mrs Bennet.) â€Å" May I hope madam, for your interest with your fair daughter Elizabeth, when I solicit for the honour of a private audience with her in the course of this morning.† Elizabeth tried to inte... ...) within a family could have serious consequences on daughters and their eligibility for marriage. Many would remain spinsters or they would marry outside their usual social circle. It was not unusual for couples to become engaged in their late teens (with the life expectancy at this time of approximately forty years it is perhaps not surprising that couples married young). Today many couples are marrying in their thirties and marriage is not as fashionable or socially vital. In the Bennets’ case as there was no son and heir there was the law of entailment whereby property was left to a male relative. Therefore there was a real pressure for a daughter to marry the inheritor so that property and wealth could remain within the family. Of course laws like this do not generally exist today, and marriages are a union of love rather than a business proposition.